Dwellers who lived in the Eastern Desert at the time of the Roman Conquest must have faced conditions comparable to those of the present time. Therefore, a study of the current mode of nomadic living is of great value, all the more because the traditional way of nomadic living is likely to alter greatly and will disappear for the most part within the coming decennia. This change is being accelerated by the increasing contact with the outside world, mainly due to the international transport between Egypt and Sudan, rising tourism, and the employment of nomads in the Nile Valley. But also our presence during the excavation seasons has had its own influence on the traditional material culture. Leather objects, for example, are being replaced more and more by imported items made from synthetic materials. Fashion also is playing a role. Leather sandals, for example, are now being offered for sale as a curiosity, and plastic or rubber sandals are worn instead. The author experienced that even nomads in such remote areas are fashion conscious when he asked one of them what he would like to have as a present from Holland the following year. The matter was not given much thought and he answered promptly: Nike shoes and an Arabic-English grammar book for his oldest son. I copied the contour of his foot in my notebook and was able to give him the desired shoes the next excavation season.
The Eastern Desert is for the main part occupied by two different nomad tribes. The Ma’aza bedouins have their territory north of the road between Quseir with Qift and the Ababda nomads south of this road. The Ababda nomads share the southern border of their territory with the Bisharin nomads,big plastic pots who live in presentday Sudan . The Ma’aza bedouins have their origins in the Arabian Peninsula. They probably arrived in Egypt in the 1700s and had succeeded in establishingtheir current territory by about 1805 at the expense of the Ababda territory . The Arabic origin of the Ma’aza bedouins is still expressed, for example, in the elaborated masked veils worn by the women. The Ababda and Bisharin nomads belong, among other tribes, to the Beja nomads. The name Beja is probably a corruption of the Arabic word badiya, which means “plain” or “desert.” Both nomadic tribes are closely related through marriage. The Blemmyes are considered the ancestors of the present-day Beja nomads . They were a powerful group in the southern part of the Eastern Desert from the third century to the first part of the sixth century AD, and were probably also part of the native groups that once lived in Berenike . A conspicuous link between modern Bisharin nomads and their presumed ancestors who were engaged in late Roman trade is visible in ornaments still in use among the Bisharin. Such ornaments have been collected by the author and depict three different impressions of Roman coins. The presence of a laurel wreath as well as the stylized shoulder pad suggest that these imitations are based on Roman coins dating back to 270–350 AD .
Some coins of Constantine bear resemblance to the copper ornaments, but none of them is a perfect match. Similar inaccurate ornaments from Sudan, described by Schienerl , are identified as stylized or even rather abstract reproductions of French coins and depict Hercules and two women representing liberty, equality, and fraternity. Sudanese silversmiths most probably copied this socalled “Hercules-group” from coins dating back to the Third Republic. These coins were introduced into Sudan in large numbers during the last decade of the nineteenth century. Forced by governmental policy, most Ababda nomads have given up their nomadic way of life and have become settled. The houses vary from wooden shacks to concrete buildings, with the choice of building material largely opportunistic. Traditionally, their houses consisted of wooden frames with mats, carpets, and skins as coverage . Today, modern materials such as corrugated iron and soft board have become increasingly popular, too. Near the sea, where sufficient driftwood is available, wooden houses are also built. In the wooded Gebel Elba area, houses are predominantly made from branches interwoven to form solid walls. Recently, concrete buildings are being offered by the government as accommodation, as is the case in Arab Saleh nearby Berenike. Separate enclosures are made to protect domestic animals from wild dogs during the night. The nomadic way of life of the Ababda nomads has, however, not completely been abandoned because the unpredictable and sporadic rain still has a large impact on the fluctuating carrying capacity of the desert environment. In dry years, sheep and goats that need frequent watering and grazing may be transported as far as the Gebel Elba area, where regular rainfall ensures rich vegetation every year.
The basic necessities of desert life concern food, water, and fuel. Foodstuffs that make up the staple diet of the present-day Ababda nomads, such as fl our, lentils, dried leaves of mulukhiyah or Malta jute , sugar, tea, and coffee are all available in shops and markets. Mulukhiyah is a member of the lime family and native of tropical Africa and Asia. Together with jute , Mulukhiyah was cultivated for its fiber in India, although its quality is inferior to that of jute . In Egypt, mulukhiyah has a long tradition as a spinach-like vegetable and is still cultivated there on a large scale. From about 8 to 10 weeks after sowing, the first upper leaves of this vegetable can be harvested. After drying, leaves are chopped and added to a broth of meat. The mucilaginous soup is cooled down and spiced with fried garlic and coriander . Soups made of mulukhiyah and lentils are served with bread and are among the cheapest of staple foods, which is eaten a few times a week. Recently, mulukhiyah has also become popular in Yemen . The poisonous seeds of mulukhiyah are erroneously recorded from the Roman site Karanis by Darby et al. . It is also said that classical authors such as Theophrastus and Pliny make reference to this plant, but only Theophrastus’ description is convincing. Two kinds of unleavened bread are made from a mixture of fl our, salt, and water. Traditionally, wheat kernels were grinded into fl our with the aid of small stone rotary querns. Although such querns are still in use, nomads increasingly buy large quantities of ready milled fl our. One type of bread is fatiira, a round thin sheet of bread baked on a round, iron baking sheet, such as the bottom of an oil drum. Gurs, on the other hand, is thicker and baked in hot sand under a charcoal fire. Making this bread requires great skill. The crust should be free of sand to prevent damage to the teeth, which already suffer from the excessive use of sugar. To minimize the inclusion of sand particles, as well as to optimize brushing off the remaining sand, much tension is exerted on the dough, resulting in a smooth flat surface. To make sure that the bread is baked thoroughly, the sand should be properly heated. The baking process in the sand takes about half an hour, and starts with heating the sand with a charcoal fire. The temperature of the sand depends on the kind of charcoal that is used. As soon as the sand reaches the right temperature, the trick is to brush the charcoal carefully aside with a stick so that it does not become covered with sand. Next, the sand itself is pushed aside so that the bread can be put into the hot sand. The bread is covered up again, first with sand and next with the charcoal. After about fifteen minutes,growing berries in containers the procedure is repeated in order to turn the bread. If the charcoal consists of solid pieces and is handled with care, it is possible to finish the bread with the same charcoal coals. Charcoal made from twisted acacia fulfills this condition, and is therefore highly suitable, whereas that from sugar date , for example, appears to be too soft. Coffee is made in a traditional way. The equipment usually consists of a coffeepot, a set of three small cups, a tin for roasting coffee, and a mortar and pestle . Currently used earthenware coffeepots are imported from Sudan, and the glazed cups without handle are made in China. To facilitate the transportation of this fragile crockery, the coffeepot and cups are stored in special baskets . Traditionally, these containers are covered by leather. New models are embroidered with plastic, which is mostly woven in traditional triangular patterns. Mortars are preferably made from thick roots of twisted acacia , and old specimens are often repaired with pieces of metal. One mortar shown to us by an Ababda nomad was made from teak wood and illustrates the opportunistic use of high-quality drift material.
Together with coffee beans, sugar, and ginger, this equipment is stored in a skin bag. Coffeepots are comparatively expensive, and a group of Ababda nomads that were employed for the excavation season used a remodeled hair-spray siphon instead. For the same reason, pestles are mostly recycled solid bars, whereas roasting equipment is mostly made from tins with a handle of twisted metal. Such cans used for roasting are either self-made or bought in markets. The coffee ceremony starts with making a charcoal fire and roasting a handful of coffee beans. Once roasted, the coffee beans are pounded in a mortar. Ginger is used as a coffee flavor enhancer. Some small, dried pieces are pounded and poured into the coffeepot together with the pounded coffee beans and water. The coffeepot is then heated on the charcoal fire. A ball of palm fibers, currently replaced by plastic fibers or something of that sort, is used as a sieve in the gap of the spout to prevent coffee grounds from coming out. Coffee is served with much sugar and it is the custom to drink an uneven number of cups of coffee. Weir mentions the use of cardamom seeds as an additive in Palaestina. Coffee can be made inside a tent or house by putting charcoal on a metal plate or dish. In this way the source of heat can easily be removed. The Ababda nomads who live in small settlements around Berenike, such as Arab Saleh and Manazig, can buy regular food products in a local shop, but rely on the market at Shelateen for a broader selection. This market offers common food and spices, such as cardamon , rosary pea , white lupin , Haplophyllum tuberculatum, clove , fenugreek , coriander , mahaleb cherry , cumin , lentil , sorghum , anise , cress , black pepper , and black cumin . The more-luxurious spices are only available in specialized shops in big cities. Shops with a good assortment of spices are still present in the bazaar of Khan al-Khalili in Cairo and can be rated among the best ones of the Near East . Due to the vicinity of the Red Sea, seafood is also available to the Ababda nomads. Today, fishing is even practiced on a commercial basis in Manazig. Shellfish are also consumed, as is evidenced by concentrations of shells in the desert. Gazelles are frequently seen in the Eastern Desert, but it is unknown to what extent they are still hunted. Traditional traps for catching gazelles consist of a ring in which spines of date palm leaves are tightened so that their pointed ends are in the center. The trap is put over a hole in the vicinity of water or food and covered with sand. The ring is connected to a pole about 75 cm long by a rope. When an animal treads on it, it is unable to free itself and in trying to do so its legs become damaged by the fastened pole, making it an easy catch. The Ababda could not show me such traps, but they are still available and in use by the Bisharin nomads. Permanent water is found only in scattered wells. Additionally, water may be obtained from shadowed rock shelters in periods following heavy rainfall. Some of these shelters may provide water for considerable periods.